Nama :safira
Nim :0810440271
Kelas :D
Judul jurnal : Economic Threshold for the Sunn Pest, Eurygaster integriceps Put. (Hemiptera: Scutelleridae), on Wheat in Southeastern Turkey
J. Agric. Urban Entomol. Vol. 22, No. 3&4 (2005)
Dosen Pembimbing :Dr.Ir.Anton Muhibuddin


Economic Threshold for the Sunn Pest, Eurygaster
integriceps Put. (Hemiptera: Scutelleridae), on Wheat in
Southeastern Turkey1
Ramazan Canhilal, Halil Kutuk,2 Ali Duran Kanat,2 Mahmut. Islamoglu,2
Fuad El-Haramein,3 and Moustafa El-Bouhssini3
Seyrani Agricultural Faculty, Erciyes University 38039 Melikgazi, Kayseri, Turkey
J. Agric. Urban Entomol. 22(3&4): 191–201 (July/October 2005)
ABSTRACT

The sunn pest, Eurygaster integriceps Puton (Hemiptera: Scutelleridae), is the most important insect pest of wheat and barley in Turkey. To redefine an economic threshold (ET) for the sunn pest, we determined the yield loss as the result of white spike damage caused by overwintered adults and kernel damage by nymphs and new-generation adults in wheat
fields. Studies conducted in 17 one-ha insecticide-free wheat fields showed that white spike damage occurred at low levels (0.1–1.7%). Regression analysis was used to assess the relationship between overwintered adult density and white spike damage and between percent kernel damage and sedimentation value. The relationship between overwintered adult density and white spike damage was not significant in bread and durum wheat. Mean kernel damage was 2.2% and 6.6% in bread wheat and 8.0% and 2.8% in durum wheat in 2002 and 2003,
respectively. There was a positive relationship between nymph and newgeneration adult density and kernel damage using regression analysis in bread and durum wheat. Sedimentation values were 18–82 and 7–89 in 2002 and 2003 in bread wheat, and 9–22 and 9–28 in 2002 and 2003 in durum wheat. No effect of sunn pest density on gluten strength up to 2.1% kernel damage in bread wheat or up to 0.9% kernel damage in durum wheat was detected, but kernel damages greater than these levels limited dough quality. When these
limit values were used, economic thresholds were 8.1 and 9.2 nymphs/m2 in bread and durum wheat. The current ET (10 nymphs/m2) may be lowered to 8–9 nymph/m2 for some wheat varieties and regions, especially for low-yield levels (approximately 2000–2500 kg/ha) in bread wheat but may still be valid for durum wheat.

KEY WORDS Economic threshold, white spike damage, kernel damage, sunn pest Wheat, Triticum aestivum L., and barley, Hordeum vulgare L., are important crops in Turkey and are grown on approximately 14 million ha annually. The sunn pest, Eurygaster integriceps Put. (Hemiptera: Scutelleridae), is a very damaging insect pest of wheat and barley in Turkey (Lodos 1982). Overwintered adults of the sunn pest attack the leaves and stems of young, succulent wheat and barley plants, causing them to wither and die before spike formation. They also suck the base of the spike during the early growing period, resulting in whitish
spikes without kernels, producing white spikes. Yield losses are estimated at 50% to 90% in wheat and 20% to 30% in barley. Apart from the direct yield reduction, the insect injects digestive enzymes during feeding that reduce the baking quality of the dough. If as little as 2% to 3% of the grain has been fed on, the entire grain lot may be rendered unacceptable for baking purposes because of poor-quality flour (Lodos 1982).
This insect was first reported from the South Anatolia Region of Turkey in 1927, and there have been many outbreaks from the 1950s to the present. Detailed studies on the sunn pest were begun in the 1950s in Turkey (S¸ ims¸ek 1998). The government managed sunn pest control from 1927 until 2001, when an integrated pest management approach was adopted. Sunn pest management was changed from aerial application to ground spraying, which shifted the responsibility to farmers. Currently, ground sprays for sunn pest control are conducted on 1 to 2 million ha annually (Anonymous 2004). The government provides technical support and insecticides, and farmers are supposed to apply the insecticide with
their equipment, as determined by official technical consultants.
The sunn pest is univoltine. Adults rest under bushes and litter at high elevations around cereal fields during the hot and dry months of late summer and autumn. They hibernate during the cold and often severe winter months on hillsides of the mountains. In spring, when soil surface temperature reaches 15°C at overwintering sites, adults migrate to cereal fields. Migration typically continues for 7 to 10 d. Overwintered adults appear in the fields during a 1- to 4-week period. After feeding, females lay eggs on leaves, stems, and spikes. After five nymphal instars, new-generation adults are seen. These new-generation
adults feed and return to higher elevations after barley and wheat harvest (Lodos 1982).
When migration to the fields ends, technical consultants survey fields and overwintered adults are counted in 0.25-m2 frames to determine field densities. Fields also are monitored for egg parasitism by Trissolcus spp. (Hymenoptera, Scelionidae) when 20% to 30% of the eggs are 10 to 12 days old. Spraying is not conducted if the overwintered adult densities are at or less than 0.8, 1.0, and 1.5 adult/m2 and the parasitism rates are 40%, 50%, and 70%, respectively (Simsek & Sezer 1985). Finally, nymph density is determined in the same manner as for the overwintered adults. The most effective time to spray the sunn pest is during the first two nymphal instars. At the end of the survey, if nymph density reaches
10 nymphs/m2, fields are sprayed, and this usually coincides with the milky stage of winter wheat (Lodos 1982). One of the key factors affecting the success of integrated pest management programs is economic threshold (ET). The ET used for sunn pest control was
established approximately 40 years ago in Turkey (Yüksel 1968). There is a need to redefine the ET because of changes in climatic conditions, wheat varieties used, agronomical practices, and crop diversity. The purpose of this study was to determine the yield loss caused by overwintered adults and kernel damage caused by nymphs and new-generation adults in wheat fields to redefine the ET for the sunn pest.

Materials and Methods

The study was conducted in 17 one-ha insecticide-free bread and durum wheat fields in Gaziantep, Kilis, and Kahramanmaras provinces in southeastern of Turkey during 2002 and 2003. There were five fields of bread wheat (Nurdagi Ciftlik, Islahiye Zincirli, Islahiye Hanagizi, and Islahiye Sakcagozu in Gaziantep and Turkoglu Tigem in Kahramanmaras) and four fields of durum wheat (Oguzeli Kutlar, Oguzeli Havaalani, and Oguzeli Sanko in Gaziantep and Elbeyli Yavuzlu in Kilis) in 2002, and four fields of bread wheat (Nurdagi Ciftlik, Islahiye Kozdere, and Sahinbey Degirmenonu in Gaziantep and Turkoglu Tigem in
Kahramanmaras) and four fields of durum wheat (Oguzeli Kutlar, Oguzeli Havaalani, and Yavuzeli Arpaci in Gaziantep and Elbeyli Yavuzlu in Kilis) in 2003. Several varieties of bread and durum wheat were used. Variety was not held constant over all fields, and not all fields were used in both years. When the migration of adults from overwintered sites to cereal fields ended, weekly surveys to determine adult and nymph density were begun in each field by using a 0.25-m2 frame. A total of 25 frames tossed at random in each field were sampled, and overwintered adults, nymphs, and new-generation adults were counted in the each frame.

The results of these counts were multiplied by four and presented. During the surveys, at the beginning of the milky stage of wheat, all healthy and damaged spikes in each frame were recorded. Spike damage (white spike damage) caused by overwintered adults for each field was calculated based on the first overwintered adult densities determined. Before harvest, all plants in each frame were cut and put in a paper bag and brought to laboratory. In the laboratory, spikes were dried and threshed and the kernels cleaned. The kernels from each frame were weighed to determine yield per field. The mean yield from 25–0.25 m2 was used to estimate the yield per ha for each field. Then, kernels from all 25 frames were combined, and 1-kg kernels taken from this combined kernels for each field. From this sample, 100 kernels, up to 20 times (total _ 2000 kernels), were selected randomly. These subsamples
were checked under the dissecting microscope and damaged and undamaged kernels were separated (Dörtbudak 1974), and percent kernel damage was regressed against nymphs and new-generation adult density at the final count in each field.

Sedimentation test. The kernels combined from 25 sampling frames also were used for sedimentation test. All milling was conducted at 23°C and 60% relative humidity. Wheat samples were cleaned and tempered overnight to optimum moisture, as described by Williams et al. (1988). Tempered wheat was milled using Buhler laboratory mill type MLU-202 (Uzwil, Switzerland), with break roll gaps adjusted to B2 _ 1.2/1000 cm, B3 _ 0.8/1000 cm, C1 _ 1.2/1000 cm, and C3 _ 0.8/1000 cm. Medium-hard soft-wheat clothing was used. Buhler Bran finisher MLU-302 (Uzwil, Switzerland) was used to extract “bran flour”, which was combined with all six flour streams.

The Modified sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) sedimentation test (Cressey & McStay 1987) was used to evaluate wheat-bug damaged in wheat. The method involves weighing 5 g of sieved flour (using UDY cyclone mill [Fort Collins, Colorado] and 100 mesh sieve), which is transferred to a 100-ml stoppered measuring cylinder; a 50-ml quantity of indicator solution (0.100 g of bromophenol blue per10 L of demineralized water) is added and shaken 15 times. Samples were incubated for 30 min at 37°C, with shaking 15 times every 5 min. After 30 min, 50 ml of 3% SDS solution was added, inverted 4 times every 2 min and, after three trials, the samples were incubated for 10 min at 37°C.

Statistical analysis. Regression analysis was used to predict kernel damage (%) based on final nymph and new-generation adult density (P < 0.05). A correlation analysis was applied to determine the relation between overwintered adult density and white spike damage and between percent kernel damage and sedimentation value (P < 0.05). All statistical analysis was performed using SPSS for Windows (SPSS 2003). Data from the 2 years were combined for regression and correlation analyses.




Results and Discussion
Adult migration was completed during the last week of April in both years, and weekly survey studies were started. Sunn pest adults were present in field trials 2 to 4 weeks after migration was completed. Nymphs of the sunn pest were seen in the middle of May in both years and reached the new-generation adult stage, which is the most damaging stage, in the first week of June (Tables 1, 2, 3, and 4).

In bread wheat, average overwintered adult density was 0.9 and 0.7 per m2 in 2002 and 2003, respectively (Table 1 and 2), and was 1.8 and 0.6 per m2 in durum wheat in 2002 and 2003, respectively (Tables 3 and 4). Adult populations in some






study fields decreased or increased in consecutive sampling dates. This was likely because of sunn pest movement in or out of the fields. The nymph population averaged 5.4 and 9.0/m2 in bread wheat (Tables 1 and 2), and 18.4 and 11.7/m2 in durum wheat in 2002 and 2003, respectively (Tables 3 and 4). Bread wheat yield averaged 5404 kg/ha and 4040.5 kg/ha in 2002 and
2003, respectively (Table 5). Yields for durum wheat were 4648.8 kg/ha and 2991
kg/ha in 2002 and 2003, respectively (Table 6). No leaf or stem damage was observed in either year because when the sunn pest completed migration to the fields, wheat plants reached 10 to 15 cm in height, and it was late for the sunn pest to damage leaves and stems, as observed by Lodos (1961).


White spike damage (overwintered adult damage). White spike damage occurred at low levels. It averaged 0.1% and 0.5% in bread wheat (Table 5) and 0.9% and 0.2% in durum wheat in 2002 and 2003, respectively (Table 6). Correlation analysis indicated that there was no significant relationship between overwintered adult density and white spike damage caused by overwintered adults in bread (r _ 0.288, r2 _ 0.083, P _ 0.226) or durum wheat (r _ 0.568,r2 _ 0.322, P _ 0.071).
Canhilal et al. (2005) also found that the low level of white spike damage (0.1–0.9%) occurred at various overwintered sunn pest adult densities (1, 2, 3, 5, and 10 overwintered adults/m2) in large field cages (2 by 2 by 1.7 m) and was not statistically significant in bread or durum wheat.
Conversely, Kılıç et al. (1973) found that 0.4, 1.0 to 1.5, 1.6 to 2.0, and 2.1 to 2.3 overwintered sunn pest adults/m2 caused 1.1%, 3.6%, 4.2%, and 6.6% white spike damage in wheat fields, respectively. S¸ ims¸ek et al. (1997) stated that when overwintered adult density was one adult/m2, 7% stem damage and 1.9% spike damage occurred. These high levels of white spike damage differ from our results, perhaps because of high levels of overwintered adult parasitism that might have occurred in the fields, reducing adult feeding and damage.
Kernel damage (nymph and new-generation adult damage) in bread wheat. Kernel damage caused by nymphs and new-generation adults was 2.2 and 6.6% in bread wheat in 2002 and 2003, respectively (Table 5). There was a positive relation between nymph and new-generation adult density and percent














kernel damage in regression analysis (r _ 0.947, r2 _ 0.898, P _ 0.000). The regression equation used to predict percent kernel damage, based on nymph and new-generation adult density per m2, was Y _ −0.899 + 0.364X, (SE a _ 1.041, SE b _ 0.046, P _ 0.000). Sedimentation values were 18 to 82 and 7 to 89 in 2002 and 2003, respectively. The relation between sedimentation values and percent damaged kernels was strongly negative (r _ −0.821, r2 _ 0.674, P _ 0.003). The sedimentation value dropped to 52 when percent kernel damage was 2.05 in sedimentation tests (Table 3). No effect of sunn pest density on gluten strength up to kernel damage of 2.1% was detected. Sedimentation value around 50 is generally accepted as the value at which dough quality is ruined (Fouad et al. 2005). When this value is entered in our equation, the nymph density that causes the kernel damage that ruins dough quality (the economic threshold) is 8.1 nymphs/m2.
The practical tolerance for damaged kernels in industry, regardless of wheat type (bread or durum) or variety, is 2% to 3%. We found that the expected ET was 9.4 nymphs/m2 when the 2.5 value, which is the average of 2% to 3% of tolerance for damaged kernels, is used in our equation. The expected ET of 8.1 nymphs/m2 obtained from the sedimentation value is different from the ET of 9.4 nymphs/m2 calculated from the tolerance level for
damaged kernels used in industry and ET (10 nymph/m2) regardless of wheat variety and region in Turkey. Thus, the ET (10 nymph/m2) may be lowered to 8 to 9 nymph/m2 for wheat varieties and regions where there are complaints and practical observations, and especially for low-yield levels (approximately 2000– 2500 kg/ha) until more detailed research is conducted.
Durum wheat. Kernel damage was 8.0 and 2.8% in durum wheat in 2002 and 2003, respectively (Table 6). A strong, positive relation was determined between nymph and new-generation adult density and percent kernel damage in regression analysis (r _ 0.859, r2 _ 0.738, P _ 0.003). The regression equation obtained to predict percent kernel damage, based on nymph and new-generation adult density per m2, was Y _ −3.206 + 0.443X, (SE a _ 2.368, SE b _ 0.108, P _ 0.006).
Sedimentation values varied from 9 to 22 in 2002 and 9 to 28 in 2003. Most fields yielded low sedimentation values and were of poor quality. There was a strong negative relation between sedimentation values and percent damaged kernels (r _ −0.699, r2 _ 0.489, P _ 0.027). The sedimentation value was 28, which is around the limit that weakens gluten strength (Fouad et al. 2005), when the kernel damage was 0.9% (Table 6). When this level of kernel damage (0.9%) is placed in the equation, the nymph density that causes the kernel damage that spoils dough quality is 9.2 nymphs/m2.
As in bread wheat, the expected ET is calculated as 12.9 nymphs/m2 when 2.5, which is the average of 2% to 3% of tolerance for kernel damage, is used in our equation. This is much higher than the ET that is used (10 nymphs/m2) now in Turkey.
Although the level of kernel damage that weakens the gluten in our study (0.9%) differed from practical tolerance for kernel damage in industry (2–3%), the ET of 9.2 nymphs/m2 calculated from the equation and the ET that is currently used (10 nymphs/m2) are similar. Hence, in durum wheat, the tolerance for kernel damage in industry should be lowered approximately 1%, but the ET, which is 10 nymphs/m2 appears to be still valid.
However, almost no low-level kernel was recorded in the study plots; sedimentation was low and damage was high for all measured points. Thus, the regression operated close to the lower limit of its valid range when it was used for gluten strength and ET calculations, or for 2.5% damage and ET. This should be considered when the results are used. Lowering the ET will increase insecticide use and cost of wheat production. On the other hand, Turkey imports wheat to increase flour quality to be able to make bread although it produces more wheat than needed. Therefore, decreasing ET and good sunn pest management will increase the wheat quality and stop wheat imports.
Differences between our results on the tolerance for kernel damage and ET, and the ones that are used in the country might have occurred because our studies and the previous studies were not conducted on the same varieties or in the same region, and there were some changes in climatic conditions, agronomical practices, and crop diversity over time. Therefore, future research should be done based on region, wheat type and variety, and various yield levels.
Acknowledgment
We thank Ramazan Yetis of Adana Plant Protection Research Institute for his help in
field work, Prof. Dr. Hasan Rustu Kutlu and Prof. Dr. Murat Gorgulu of Cukurova University
for advice on statistical analysis of our data, and Dr. Peter Adler of Clemson University,
SC, for reviewing the manuscript.
References Cited
Anonymous. 2004. Technical Instructions for plant protection. General Directorate of
Protection and Control, the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Ankara, 291 pp.
Canhilal, R., H. Kutuk, M. Islamogul, A. D. Kanat & A. Gul. 2005. Damage loss assessment
of sunn pest, Eurygaster integriceps Puton (Hemiptera; Scutelleridae) on
wheat in Turkey. Arab J. Plant Protect., in press.
Cressey, P. J. & C. L. McStay. 1987. Wheat-bug damage in New Zealand wheat. Development
of a simple SDS-sedimentation test for bug damage. J. Sci. Food Agric. 38:
357–366.
Dörtbudak, Y. 1974. Investigation on Eurygaster species, identification, distribution and
population densities in the Southeast Anatolia. General Directorate of Plant Protection
and Agricultural Quarantine Research Trace Series, Ministry of Food-Agriculture and
Livestock Farm, Ankara, 40 pp.
Fouad, J. H., M. El-Bouhssini, M. A. Mafi, R. Canhilal & H. Kutuk. 2005. The impact
of sunn pest density in wheat fields on grain and flour quality. Arab J. Plant Protect., in
press.
Kılıç, A. U., A. Çatalpınar, N. Adıgüzel, Y. Dörtbudak & S. Çavdarog˘ lu. 1973. Investigation
on distribution, biology, epidemiology and chemical control of sunn pest (Eurygaster
integriceps Put.) in the Southeast Anatolia region of Turkey (in Turkish). Annual
Report of the Plant Protection Research Institute, Diyarbakır, 121 pp.
Lodos, N. 1961. Observation on problems of the sunn pest (Eurygaster integriceps Put.) in
Turkey, Iran and Iraq. Eagean University, Faculty of Agriculture Publications. Izmir, 15
pp.
. 1982. Turkey Entomology 2. General, practical and faunistic (in Turkish). E.U.
Ziraat Fakultesi Yay. No. 429, E. U. Mat. Bornova-Izmir, 591 pp.
S¸ ims¸ek, N. & A. C. Sezer. 1985. Hatay ilinde bug˘dayda Süne (Eurygaster integriceps
Put.)’nin yumurta ve nimf popülasyonu ile zararı üzerinde ön çalıs¸malar. Bitki Koruma
Bülteni 25:30–48.
200 J. Agric. Urban Entomol. Vol. 22, No. 3&4 (2005)
S¸ ims¸ek, Z., N. S¸ ims¸ek, M. Ozkan, K. Melan & A. Derin. 1997. Sunn Pest. Ministry of
Agriculture and Rural Affairs, General Directory of Agricultural Research Publications,
Ankara, 39 pp.
S¸ ims¸ek, Z. 1998. Past and current status of sunn pest (Eurygaster spp.) in Turkey. FAO
PPCRI Integrated Sunn Pest Control Meeting, Ankara, 6–9 January 1998.
SPSS. 2003. A simple guide and reference, 11.0 Update. Pearson Education Inc., Boston,
386 pp.
Williams, P. C., F. J. El-Haramein, H. Nakkoul & S. Rihawi. 1988. Crop Quality
Evaluation Methods and Guidelines. Technical Manual No. 14. ICARDA, Aleppo, Syria.
145 pp.
Yüksel, M. 1968. Investigation on distribution, biology, epidemiology and damage of Sunn
pest (Eurygaster integriceps Put.) in the South and Southeast Anatolia region of Turkey.
Publications of General Directorate of Plant Protection and Agricultural Quarantine, the
Ministry of Agriculture, No. 46. 255 pp (in Turkish).